Salasilah Keturunan Nabi Muhammad SAW

بِسۡمِ ٱللهِ ٱلرَّحۡمَـٰنِ ٱلرَّحِيمِ

اللَّهُمَّ صَلِّ وَسَلِّمْ عَلَى سَيِّدِنَا مُحَمَّدٍ

 

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Baik sekali kalau kita mengenali seluruh keluarga dan keturunan (salasilah) Nabi dan Rasul Allah, terutama Nabi Muhammad Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam yang mana melalui Bagindalah agama yang suci ini diturunkan.

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Nabi Muhammad Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam merupakan Nabi dan Rasul yang terakhir diutuskan oleh Allah SWT bagi menjadi model terulung untuk seluruh alam serta kedatangannya juga adalah untuk “Menyempurnakan Akhlak” (Makarrimal Akhlak) manusia. Nabi Muhammad Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam merupakan keturunan kepada Nabi Allah Ismail dan Nabi Allah Ibrahim.

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Dalam Kanzul Ummal 6: 106, kitab Fadhail, hadis ke 32010 disebutkan; Rasulullah Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam bersabda: “Aku dan Adam berada di surga dalam sulbinya, aku menaiki bahtera dalam sulbi ayahku Nuh, aku dilemparkan ke dalam api dalam sulbi Ibrahim, ayah-ayahku tidak pernah tersentuh oleh perzinaan. Allah senantiasa memindahkan aku dari sulbi yang baik ke dalam rahim yang suci, suci dan memberi petunjuk. Tidaklah tumbuh dua cabang kecuali aku yang terbaik. Allah menjadikan kenabian sebagai perjanjian (mitsaq)ku dan Islam sebagai perjanjian (‘ahd)ku. Allah menginformasikan sebutanku dalam Taurat dan Injil, menjelaskan sifat-sifatku kepada setiap nabi, memancarkan cahayaku ke muka bumi, menaungi wajahku dengan awan, mengajarkan kepadaku kitab-Nya, memuliakanku di langit-Nya, menjadikan namaku dari asma-Nya, Pemilik Arasy adalah Al-Mahmud dan aku adalah Muhammad. Allah berjanji padaku bahwa mereka yang mencintaiku akan berada di telaga Haudh dan Kautsar. Dia menjadikan aku orang yang pertama memberi syafaat dan diizinkan untuk memberi syafaat. Kemudian Dia menghadirkan aku pada abad yang terbaik bagi ummatku, mereka adalah orang-orang yang terpuji, melaksanakan amar ma’ruf dan nahi munkar.”  Al-Muttaqi Al-Hindi mengatakan: Hadis ini diriwayatkan oleh Ibnu Asakir dan Ibnu Abbas.

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Nabi Adam AS  –  Nabi Muhammad SAW

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Berikut merupakan kronologi salasilah keturunan berikut diterangkan penama-penama yang merupakan atuk moyang kepada Nabi Muhammad Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam:

• Muhammad bin Abdullah (Nabi Muhammad SAW)
• Abdullah bin Abdul Muttalib
• Abdul Mutallib bin Hashim
• Hashim bin Abdul Manaf
• Abdul Manaf bin Qusai
• Qusai bin Kilab
• Kilab bin Murrah
• Murrah bin Kaab
• Kaab bin Luay
• Luay bin Ghalib
• Ghalib bin Fahr
• Fahr bin Malik
• Malik bin Nadhar
• Nadhar bin Kinanah
• Kinanah bin Khuzaimah
• Khuzaimah bin Mudrikah
• Mudrikah bin Elyas
• Elyas bin Mudar
• Mudar bin Nizar
• Nizar bin Ma’ad / Mu’ad
• Ma’ad bin Adnan
• Adnan bin Add (diriwayatkan merupakan Pemerintah Pertama bagi kota suci Makkah)(lahir tahun 122 SM)
• Add bin Humaisi
• Humaisi bin Salaman
• Salaman bin Aws
• Aws bin Buz
• Buz bin Qamwal
• Qamwal bin Obai
• Obai bin Awwam
• Awwam bin Nashid
• Nashid bin Haza
• Haza bin Bildas
• Bildas bin Yadlaf
• Yadlaf bin Tabikh
• Tabikh bin Jahim
• Jahim bin Nahish
• Nahish bin Makhi
• Makhi bin Ayd
• Ayd bin Abqar
• Abqar bin Ubayd
• Ubayd bin Ad-Daa
• Ad-Daa bin Hamdan
• Hamdan bin Sanbir
• Sanbir bin YathRabi
• YathRabi bin Yahzin
• Yahzin bin Yalhan
• Yalhan bin Arami
• Arami bin Ayd
• Ayd bin Deshan
• Deshan bin Aisar/Aizar
• Aisar bin Afnad
• Afnad bin Aiham
• Aiham bin Muksar
• Muksar bin Nahith
• Nahith bin Zarih
• Zarih bin Sani
• Sani bin Wazzi
• Wazzi bin Adwa’
• Adwa’ bin Aram
• Aram bin Haidir
• Haidir bin Ismail (anak Nabi Allah Ismail) (dipanggil Kedar dalam Injil Kristian)
• Ismail bin Ibrahim (Ishmael bin Abraham) (Nabi Ismail a.s.)
• Ibrahim bin Tarikh (Azar) (Nabi Ibrahim a.s.)
• Azar bin Nahur
• Nahur bin Saru’ (Asyu’)
• Asyu’ bin Ar’us (Ra’u)
• Ar’us bin Faligh
• Faligh bin ‘Abar (Hud)
• Hud bin (Syalikh) Saleh
• Saleh bin Arfakhsyad
• Arfakhsyad bin Sam
• Sam bin Nuh
• Nuh bin Lumka
• Lumka bin Mutawasysaleh (Matulsaleh)
• Mutawasysaleh bin Akhnukh (Idris)
• Idris bin Azda
• Azda bin Qinan
• Qinan bin Anwasy
• Anwasy bin Syayts
• Syayts bin Adam (as)
• Adam (as).

Periwayatan tentang salasilah keturunan Nabi Muhammad Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam di atas adalah mengikut maklumat yang diperolehi dari hadis-hadis, ahli Ilmuan Islam, pakar-pakar Sejarawan. Nama betul mereka berdasarkan ejaan dalam bahasa Arab, Bahasa Aram ataupun Bahasa Ibrani.

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Dalam Kanzul Ummal 6: 300, kitab Fadhail, hadis ke 35512 disebutkan:Ibnu Abbas berkata, aku mendengar Nabi Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam  “Aku adalah Muhammad bin Abdillah bin Abdil Muththalib bin Hasyim bin Abdil Manaf bin Qushay bin Kilab bin Murrah bin Ka’b bin Luay bin Ghalib bin Fahr bin Malik bin Nadhar bin Kinanah bin Khuzaimah bin Mudrikah bin Ilyas bin Mudhar bin Nazzar bin Ma’da bin ‘Adnan bin Adda bin Udada bin Hamyasa’ bin Yasyhab bin Nabat bin Jamil bin Qaidar bin Ismail bin Ibrahim bin Tarikh bin Nahur bin Asyu’ bin Ar’us bin Faligh bin ‘Abar (Hud) bin Syalikh bin Arfakhsyad bin Sam bin Nuh bin Lumka bin Mutawasysyalikh bin Akhnukh (Idris) bin Azda bin Qinan bin Anwasy bin Syayts bin Adam (as).” Al-Muttaqi Al-Hindi mengatakan: Hadis ini diriwayatkan oleh Ad-Daylamni.

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Nasab Nabi Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam

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Nasab Nabi Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam terbahagi ke dalam tiga klasifikasi: Pertama, yang disepakati oleh ahlus Siyar wal Ansaab (Para Sejarawan dan Ahli Nasab), iaitu susunan nasab Baginda hingga kepada Adnan. Kedua, yang masih diperselisihkan antara yang mengambil sikap diam dan tidak memberi komen dengan yang mengatakan sesuatu tentangnya, iaitu susunan nasab Baginda dari atas Adnan hingga Ibrahim ‘alaihissalam. Ketiga, yang tidak diragukan lagi bahawa di dalamnya terdapat riwayat yang tidak sahih, iaitu susunan nasab Baginda dari atas Ibrahim hingga Nabi Adam ‘alaihissalam.

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Berikut ini penjelasan detail tentang ketiga klasifikasi tersebut:

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Klasifikasi Pertama: Muhammad bin ‘Abdullah bin’ Abdul Muththalib (nama asalnya; Syaibah) bin Hasyim (nama asalnya: ‘Amru) bin’ Abdul Manaf (nama asalnya: al-Mughirah) bin Qushai (nama asalnya: Zaid) bin Kilab bin Murrah bin Ka’ab bin Luai bin Ghalib bin Fihr (julukannya: Quraisy yang kemudian suku ini dinisbatkan kepadanya) bin Malik bin an-Nadhar (nama asalnya: Qais) bin Kinanah bin Khuzaimah bin Mudrikah (nama asalnya: ‘Amir) bin Ilyas bin Mudhar bin Nizar bin Ma’add bin Adnan.

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Klasifikasi Kedua: (dari urutan nasab di atas hingga ke atas Adnan) iaitu, Adnan bin Adad bin Humaisa ‘bin Salam sejahtera bin’ Iwadh bin Buuz bin Qimwaal bin Abi ‘Awwam bin Naasyid bin Hiza bin Buldaas bin Yadlaaf bin Thaabikh bin Jaahim bin Naahisy bin Maakhi b in ‘Iidh bin’ Abqar bin ‘Ubaid bin ad-Di’aa bin Hamdaan bin Sunbur bin Yatsribi bin Yahzan bin Yalhan bin Ar’awi bin’ Iidh bin Diisyaan bin ‘Aishar bin Afnaad bin Ayhaam bin Miqshar bin Naahits bin Zaarih bin Sumay bin Mizzi bin ‘Uudhah bin’ Uraam bin Qaidaar bin Ismail bin Ibrahim ‘alaihimassalam.

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Klasifikasi Ketiga: (dari urutan nasab kedua-dua klasifikasi di atas hingga ke atas Nabi Ibrahim) iaitu, Ibrahim ‘alaihissalam bin Taarih (namanya: Aazar) bin Naahuur bin Saaruu’ atau Saaruugh bin Raa’uw bin Faalikh bin ‘Aabir bin Syaalikh bin Arfakhsyad bin Saam bin nuh ‘alaihissalam bin Laamik bin Mutwisylakh bin Akhnukh (ada yang mengatakan bahawa dia adalah Nabi Idris’ alaihissalam) bin Yarid bin Mahlaaiil bin Qainaan bin Aanuusyah bin Syits bin Adam ‘alaihissalam. Keluarga besar Nabi Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam

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Nasab Dan Keturunan Terbaik

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Allamah Sayyid Murtadha, penulis kitab “Fadhail al-Khamsah min As-Shihhah As-Sittah”, mengatakan: Hadis tentang bahawa Nabi Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam dilahirkan dari perkahwinan bukan dari perzinaan banyak sekali.

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1.  Dalam Thabaqat Al-Kubra Ibnu Saad, jilid 1, bahagian 1: 31, dzikr ummahat Rasulillah Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam, disebutkan: Imam Ali bin Husein (sa) berkata bahawa Rasulullah Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam bersabda: “Sesungguhnya aku dilahirkan dari perkahwinan, aku tidak pernah dilahirkan dari perzinaan sejak dari Adam. Aku belum pernah sedikit pun tersentuh oleh perzinaan kaum jahiliyah, aku belum pernah dilahirkan kecuali dari kesucian perkahwinan.”

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2.  Dalam Shahih At-Tirmidzi 2: 269, kitab manaqib, bab keutamaan Nabi Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam, hadis ke 3608 disebutkan: Abu Wida’ah berkata: pada suatu hari Ibnu Abbas datang kepada Rasulullah Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam, seakan-akan Baginda mendengar sesuatu, kemudian Baginda naik ke mimbarnya dan bersabda: “Siapakah aku?” Sahabat menjawab: “Engkau Rasul Allah, salam atasmu.” Kemudian Rasulullah Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam bersabda: “Aku adalah Muhammad bin Abdillah bin Abdil Mutalib. Sesungguhnya Allah menciptakan makhluk, maka menjadikan aku yang terbaik dari mereka dalam golongan, kemudian menjadikan mereka dua golongan, dan menjadikan aku yang terbaik dari mereka dalam golongan. Kemudian menjadikan mereka bersuku-suku, dan menjadikan aku yang terbaik dalam suku. Kemudian menjadikan mereka dalam keluarga-keluarga, dan Allah menjadikan keluargaku yang terbaik di dalam semua keluarga mereka, dan yang terbaik dalam nasab (garis keturunan).”

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3.  Dalam Mustadrak Al-Hakim 4: 73, kitab ma’rifah As-shahabah, fadhail Quraisy, disebutkan: Abdullah bin Umar berkata: Pada suatu hari ketika kami duduk di halaman rumah Nabi Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam ada seseorang perempuan lalu berhampiran kami, kemudian salah seorang lelaki dari suatu kaum berkata: “Ini puteri Muhammad Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam.” Kemudian Abu Sufian berkata: “Muhammad di Bani Hasyim seperti tanaman di tengah-tengah jerami.” Kemudian perempuan itu pergi dan menceritakan kepada Nabi Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam. Kemudian Nabi Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam keluar dan nampak marah di wajahnya lalu bersabda: “Alangkah menyakitkan kata-kata yang sampai padaku tentang suatu kaum? Sesungguhnya Allah SWT menciptakan tujuh langit dan memilih yang tertinggi, kemudian menempatkan padanya makhluk yang dikehendaki-Nya. Kemudian Dia menciptakan makhluk lalu memilih keturunan Adam dari makhluk-Nya, memilih arab dari keturunan Adam, memilih keturunan Mudhar dari kalangan arab, memilih suku Quraisy dari keturunan Mudhar, memilih Bani Hasyim dari suku quraisy, dan memilih aku daripada Bani Hasyim. Aku adalah dari Bani Hasyim dari orang-orang pilihan. Sesiapa yang mencintai orang arab kerana mencintaiku maka aku mencintai mereka; Sesiapa yang membenci orang arab kerana membenciku maka aku membenci mereka.”

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4.  Dalam Dzakhair Al-‘Uqba: 10, bab keutamaan quraisy, Muhibuddin At-Thabari menyebut: Watsilah bin Asqa berkata bahawa Rasulullah Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam bersabda: “Sesungguhnya Allah memilih Ibrahim dari keturunan Adam dan menjadikan ia kekasih-Nya. Dia memilih Ismail dari keturunan Nabi Ibrahim, kemudian memilih Nizar dari keturunan Ismail, kemudian memilih Mudhar dari keturunan Nizar, kemudian memilih Kinanah dari Mudhar, kemudian memilih Quraisy dari Kinanah, kemudian memilih Bani Hasyim dari Quraisy, kemudian Bani Abdul Mutalib dari Bani Hasyim, kemudian memilihku dari Bani Abdul Mutalib.” Muhibuddin At-Thabari berkata: Hadis ini diriwayatkan oleh Abu Qasim bin Yusuf As-Sahmi, diriwayatkan juga secara ringkas oleh Muslim, At-Tirmidzi dan Abu Hatim.

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5.  Dalam Kanzul Ummal 6: 108, kitab Fadhail, hadis ke 32044 disebutkan: Rasulullah Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam bersabda: “Aku adalah manusia yang paling mulia dalam garis keturunan, tapi aku tidak membanggakan. Aku adalah manusia yang paling mulia dalam kadarnya, tapi aku tidak membanggakan. Wahai manusia, sesiapa yang datang kepada kami maka kami akan datang kepadanya. Sesiapa yang memuliakan kami, maka kami akan memuliakannya. Sesiapa yang mencatat kami, maka kami akan mencatatnya. Sesiapa yang membawa mayat kami, maka kami akan membawa mayatnya. Sesiapa yang melaksanakan hak kami, maka kami akan melaksanakan haknya. Wahai manusia, hitunglah manusia sesuai dengan kadar perhitungan mereka, bergaullah dengan manusia sesuai dengan kadar agama mereka, datangilah manusia sesuai dengan kadar pemikiran mereka, dan ajaklah manusia berfikir dengan akal kamu.” Al-Muttaqi Al-Hindi mengatakan: Hadis ini diriwayatkan oleh Ad-Daylami dari Jabir dari Rasulullah Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam.

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6.  Dalam tafsir Ad-Durrul Mantsur, surah Al-Ahzab: 33, Jalaluddin As-Suyuthi menyebutkan: Ibnu Abbas berkata bahawa Rasulullah Shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam bersabda: “Sesungguhnya Allah membahagikan makhluk kepada dua golongan, kemudian menjadikan aku yang terbaik dari dua golongan itu. Inilah yang dimaksudkan oleh firman Allah: “Golongan kanan .. dan golongan kiri.” (Al-Waqi’ah: 27, 41). Aku adalah dari golongan kanan, dan golongan kanan yang terbaik. Kemudian membahagi dua golongan itu menjadi tiga golongan, dan menjadikan aku yang terbaik daripada tiga golongan itu. Inilah yang dimaksudkan oleh firman-Nya: “Iaitu golongan kanan. Alangkah mulianya golongan kanan itu. Dan golongan kiri. Alangkah sengsaranya golongan kiri itu. Dan orang-orang yang paling dahulu beriman, merekalah yang paling dahulu (masuk syurga).” Aku adalah dari golongan orang-orang yang dahulu beriman, dan aku yang terbaik dari golongan orang-orang yang paling dahulu beriman. Kemudian Allah menjadikan tiga golongan itu menjadi suku-suku, dan menjadikan aku yang terbaik dari suku-suku itu. Inilah yang dimaksudkan oleh firman Allah SWT: “Dan Aku jadikan kamu berbangsa-bangsa dan bersuku-suku supaya kamu saling mengenal, sesungguhnya yang paling mulia dari kalian adalah kamu yang paling bertaqwa.” (Al-Hujurat: 13). Aku adalah orang yang paling bertakwa dan paling mulia dari keturunan Adam, tetapi aku tidak membanggakannya. Kemudian Allah menjadikan suku-suku itu menjadi keluarga-keluarga, lalu Dia menjadikan aku dan keluargaku yang terbaik dari keluarga-keluaga itu. Inilah yang dimaksudkan oleh firman Allah SWT: “Sesungguhnya Allah berkehendak menjaga kamu dari dosa-dosa hai ahlul bait, dan mensucikan kamu dengan sesuci-sucinya.” (Al-Ahzab: 33). Dengan demikian, maka aku dan ahlul baitku adalah orang-orang yang disucikan dari dosa-dosa.” Jalaluddin As-Suyuthi berkata: Hadis ini diriwayatkan oleh Al-Hakim, At-Tirmidzi, At-Thabrani, Ibnu Mardawaih, Abu Na’im dan al-Baihaqi dari Ibnu Abbas.

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والله أعلم بالصواب

Wallahu A’lam bishowab
(Hanya Allah Maha Mengetahui apa yang benar)


Kredit: https://shafiqolbu.wordpress.com/2012/01/29/salasilah-keturunan-nabi-muhammad-saw/
 

Sakit Gigi

KORANG SAKIT GIGI? CEPAT CARI BENDA NI!

Ingat lagi tak episod yan sakit gigi bulan Januari yang lepas? Hampir 2 minggu sakit gigi. Bukan sakit biasa-biasa. Sakit ya amatttt! Sampai menitis tup tap tup tap air mata. Sadis gila. Sakit oiii! Gigi bongsu la katakan.

Jumpa doktor dapat la ubat tahan sakit & antibiotik. Yan rasa ubat tahan sakit tu kuat gila sebab kalau telan, sejam dua lepas tu hilang terus sakit. Eh eh sihat wal afiat pulakss! Tapiiiiiii esok dan esok dan esok datang balik sakit tuuu. 😭

Sempat telan 2 biji jer ubat tahan sakit. Sebab rasa kuat sgt ubat tu, tak berani laa nak amal walaupon doc cakap selamat jer. Hari2 seterusnya tahan sendiri laaa sakit tu.

Antibiotik mmg yan habiskan. Tapi still sakit tu berterusan. Siang sakit, malam hilang. Esok ulang sakit balik sampai hampir 2 minggu tak hilang lagi.

Yang pernah sakit gigi bongsu paham la kot sakit tu camna. Sampai ke otak dia pergi. Jemmm! Memang melepekkk kat rumah ajer la jawabnya. Tak de mood nak keluar.

Sembang dengan adik laki, adik pon tanya;

"Laaa, tak hilang lagi ka sakit gigi hang kak?"
"Belum. Sampai sekarang sakit. Bila laaa nak hilang pon x tau. Huhuhu..." yan mengadu.

"Man dulu pon sakit macam hg gak. Pi check, doktor cakap gigi bongsu berlubang. Kena cabut. Pastu aku pon cabut lariiii! Hahaha..." adik bercerita.

"Laaa... Hg lariiii???" yan terkejut sambil gelak.

"Haaa laaa. Pastu sakit x tahan, aku pi klinik lain pulak. Tapi aku cerita sesiap la kat doktor tu yg aku dah pi check gigi, doc sana cakap kena cabut terus aku angkat kaki. So, doc tu tau aku penakut. Dia pon suruh aku pi cari satu mouth wash ni kat farmasi. Aku beli & guna 2-3 hari jer, terus hilang sakit gigi tu sampai sekarang. Alhamdulillah..." adik story panjang lebar.

Yan yg tengah sakit gigi ni pon apa lagi, terus eksited tanya.

"Weh... Nama apa ubat tu? Beli kat mana?"

"Oradex. Botoi kecik ja warna biru. Aku beli kat farmasi kupang. Hang try pi tengok. Kot ada lagi..." adik balas.

Keesokannya, yan pon pi la cari ubat tu kat farmasi. Yessss! Ada! RM 7 lebih sebotoi kecik tu. Beli terusss. Ikhtiar kot2 menjadi.

Nak tau tak apa jadi lepas yan kumur guna  mouthwash tu??

2-3 hari kemudian... Jeng jeng jeng!!!! Sakit gigi yan dah hilang!!! Hilang??? Yes, hilang sampai sekarang!!! Alhamdulillah, syukurrrr. Semuanya dengan izin Allah.

So, kalau korang sakit gigi, cuba la cari mouthwash ni. Kita usaha ja. Kalau serasi dan Allah izin, in shaa Allah menjadi. Siap ada logo halal lagi. Dapat laaa guna tanpa was-was.

Silakan share. Semoga bermanfaat 😘

Yanti Adneen

PETUA MUJARAB HILANGKAN SAKIT GIGI....👇👇👇
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Dua tiga hari ni aku mengalami sakit gigi.. tapi malam ni laa paling sakit sekali.. tak tidur malam... nak gi klinik gigi.. semuanya dah close.. Google punya google.. ada satu petua yg aku nak share ngn korang semua.. kalau ko orang sakit gigi.. pergi cari dlm almari dapur ko orang ekstrak vanila.. Yaa...! Ekstrak vanila yg mak2 korang buat kuih.. kek.. biskut.. puding dan lain2 tu...
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Cara2 nya.. ambik kapas atau tisu bersih.. celup dgn ekstrak vanila ni.. then tampal atau sapu kat tempat yg sakit... Alhamdullah.. dgn Izin Allah.. sekejap jaa sakit gigi atau sakit gusi dah hilang... sesuai utk gigi berlubang juga..
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Aku tak tau laa sapa yg bagi idea utk letak ekstrak vanila.. tapi ia betul2 berkesan... Bila dah baik tu, jangan lupa laa pergi check ngn doktor pulak.. mungkin doktor akan nasihatkan untuk cabut gigi tu atau tampal mana yg berlubang.. anyway terima kasih pada yg memberi idea petua ni.. mungkin lepas ni akan ada kajian dan produk yang berasaskan ekstrak vanila untuk pesakit gigi..
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Mohon share pada kawan2 korang yg sakit gigi dan gusi.. 😉
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KREDIT ANGIN RINDU

Buasir

Titik Pijat Refleksi Ambeien

Menurut pengalaman saya, dengan melakukan pemijatan titik refleksi ambeien dapat menyembuhkan gejala sakit ambeien dalam 3 kali terapi saja, karena baru gejala yang timbul sehingga bisa cepat ditangani dan mudah mengatasinya. Untuk semua jenis penyakit biasakan untuk cepat menanganinya pada saat gejala baru timbul sehingga akan mudah diobati dan disembuhkan dengan izin Alloh Subhanahu Wata’ala tentunya.

Keterangan Gambar:

1. Merupakan titik refleksi usus besar di telapak kaki kanan
2. Adalah letak titik refleksi usus besar di telapak kaki kiri
3. Titik refleksi anus yang hanya terletak di telapak kaki kiri
4. Titik Refleksi Rektum hanya terletak di telapak kaki sebelah kiri
5. Titik Refleksi Tulang Tungging terletak di tumit luar

Lakukan pemijatan pada titik refleksi tersebut secara perlahan selama minimal 2 menit disetiap titiknya, lakukan secara berurutan dari titik nomor 1 sampai 5 dan anda bisa mengulangi pemijatan pada titik yang sama setelah 5 menit kemudian.

Titik Akupresur Ambeien

Setelah anda melakukan pemijatan pada titik refleksi ambeien di telapak kaki, sekarang anda bisa melanjutkan dengan melakukan pemijatan pada titik akupresur sebagai berikut:

Keterangan gambar:

1. Titik akupresur terletak di tangan kiri dan kanan
2. Titik nomor 2 terletak 1 jari disebelah titik nomor 1 ditangan kiri dan kanan
3. Titik nomor 3 berada di tulang ekor sebelah kiri
4. Titik akupresur nomor 4 terletak di samping tulang ekor sebelah kanan
5. Titik akupresur nomor 5 terletak di ujung bawah tulang ekor
6. Titik nomor 6 terletak tepat ditengah betis kaki kiri dan kanan

Lakukan pemijatan pada titik akupresur tersebut dari nomor 1 sampai 6 selama minimal 1 menit di setiap titiknya, anda juga bisa mengulangi pemijatan pada titik yang sama setelah 5 menit kemudian.

Untuk gejala ambeien lakukan terapi 3 hari berturut-turut insyaAlloh penyakit anda akan sembuh setelah terapi di hari ke tiga. Untuk penyakit ambeien yang sudah medium dan parah, anda bisa melakukan terpi 3 kali sehari selama 3 hari berturut-turut setelah itu lakukan terpai paling tidak 1 kali setiap tiga hari.

Setelah terpai dianjurkan untuk setiap pasien agar banyak minum air putih, makan makanan yang banyak mengandung serat, jangan melakukan pekerjaan yang berat terutama angkat berat, hindari makanan yang terlalu pedas, banyak berolahraga dan jaga kebugaran tubuh anda.

Demikian artikel saya tentang cara mengobati penyakit ambeien dengan metode pijat refleksi, semoga bermanfaat dan semoga menjadi sebab sumbuhnya penyakit anda, terimakasih.

Bancuhan Bata Simen

Concrete blocks - sand - cement blocks

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It is faster to build with concrete blocks than with bricks and the amount of mortar is reduced to less than half. If face shell bedding is used, in which the mortar is placed only along the edges of the blocks, the consumption of mortar is reduced by a further 50%. However, the total cement required for the blocks and mortar is far greater than that required for the mortar in a brick wall.

Concrete blocks are often made of 1:3:6 concrete with a maximum size aggregate of 10mm or a cement-sand mixture with a ratio of 1:7, 1:8 or 1:9. These mixtures, if properly cured, give concrete blocks a compression strength well above what is required in a one-storey building. The blocks may be solid, cellular or hollow. Cellular blocks have cavities with one end closed while in hollow blocks the cavities pass through. Lightweight aggregate such as cracked pumice stone is sometimes used.

Blocks are made to a number of coordinating sizes, the actual sizes being about 10mm less to allow for the thickness of the mortar.

Block Manufacturing

Blocks can be made by using a simple block-making machine operated by an engine or by hand. They can also be made by using simple wooden moulds on a platform or floor. The mould can be lined with net steel plates to prevent damage during tamping and to reduce wear on the mould. In large-scale production steel moulds are often used. The wooden mould is initially oiled overnight and need not be oiled each time it is filled. It is sufficient to wipe it clean with a cloth. The concrete, of stiff or plastic consistency, is placed in the mould in layers and each layer is compacted with a 3 kg rammer.

The mould in Figure 3.30 has a lid made so that it can pass through the rest of the mould. The slightly tapered sides can be removed by lifting the handles while holding down the lid with one foot.

Figure 3.30 Wooden mould for solid concrete blocks.

The mould illustrated in Figure 3.31 has a steel plate cut to the shape of the block which is put on as a lid and held down as the hollow-making pieces are withdrawn. Bolts are then loosened and the sides of the mould removed with a swift motion. All parts of the mould should be slightly tapered so they can be easily removed from the block.

Starting the day after the blocks have been made, water is sprinkled on them for two weeks during curing. After 48 hours the blocks can be removed for stacking, but the wetting is continued. After curing, the blocks are dried. If damp blocks are put in a wall, they will shrink and cause cracks. To assure maximum drying, the blocks are stacked interspaced, exposed to the prevailing wind and in the case of hollow blocks, with the cavities laid horizontal to form a continuous passage for the circulating air.

Decorative and Ventilating Blocks

Decorative concrete or sand/cement blocks can serve several purposes:

• Provide light and security without installing windows, or shutters.
• Provide permanent ventilation.
• Give an attractive appearance.

In addition, some are designed to keep out rain while others include mosquito-proofing.

Blocks of simple shape can be made in a wooden mould by inserting pieces of wood to obtain the desired shape, but more complicated designs usually require a professionally made steel mould.

Figure 3.31 Mould for hollow or cellular concrete blocks.

Mortar

Mortar is a plastic mixture of water and binding materials used to join concrete blocks, bricks or other masonry units.

It is desirable for mortar to hold moisture, be plastic enough to stick to the trowel and the blocks or bricks and finally to develop adequate strength without cracking.

Mortar need not be stronger than the units it joins. In fact cracks are more likely to appear in the blocks or bricks if the mortar is excessively strong.

There are several types of mortars each suitable for particular applications and of varying costs. Most of these mortars include sand as an ingredient. In all cases the sand should be clean, free of organic material, be well graded (a variety of sizes) and not exceed 3mm of silt in the sedimentation test. In most cases, particle size should not exceed 3mm as the mortar will be "harsh" and difficult to work with.

Lime mortar is typically mixed 1 part lime to 3 of sand. Two types of lime are available. Hydraulic lime hardens quickly and should be used within an hour. It is suitable for both above and below ground applications. Non-hydraulic lime requires air to harden and can only be used above ground. If smoothed off while standing, a pile of this type of lime mortar can be stored for several days.

Figure 3.32 Ventilating and decorative concrete blocks.

Cement mortar is stronger and more waterproof than line mortar, but is difficult to work with because it is not 'fat' or plastic and falls away from the blocks or bricks during placement. In addition, cement mortar is more costly than other types. Consequently it is used in only a few applications such as a damp-proof course or in some limited areas where heavy loads are expected. A 1:3 mix using fine sand is usually required to get adequate plasticity.

Compo mortar is made with cement, lime and sand. In some localities a 50:50 cement-lime mix is sold as mortar cement. The addition of the lime reduces the cost and improves the workability. A 1:2:9, cement-lime-sand mix is suitable for general purposes, while a 1:1:6 is better for exposed surfaces and a 1:3:12 can be used for interior walls or stone walls where the extra plasticity is helpful.

Mortar can also be made using pozzolana, bitumen, cutback or soil. A 1:2:9 lime-pozzolana-sand mortar about equals a 1:6 cement-sand mortar. Adobe and stabilizedsoil blocks are often laid in a mortar of the same composition as the blocks.

Tables 3.16 and 3.17 provide information on the materials required for a cubic metre of various mortars and the amount of mortar per square meter for several building units.

Starting with cement mortar, strength decreases with each type, although ability to accommodate movement increases.

Finishing Mortar

Table 3.16 Materials Required per Cubic Meter of Mortar

Type	Cement bags	Lime kg	Sand m³
Cement mortar 1 :5	6.0	-	1.1
Compo mortar 1:1:6	5.0	100.0	1.1
Compo mortar 1:2:9	3.3	13.5	1.1
Compo mortar 1:8	3.7	-	1.1
Compo mortar 1:3:12	2.5	150.0	1.1
Lime mortar 1:3	-	200.0	1.1

Table 3.17 Mortar Required for Various Types of Walls

Type of wall	Amount required per m² wall
11.5cm brickwall	0.25m³
22.2cm brickwall	0.51 m³
10cm sand-cement block wall	0.008m³
15cm sand-cement block wall	0.01 1m³
20cm sand-cement block wall	0.015m³

This is sometimes used on floors and other surfaces to give a smooth finish or as an extremely hard coating to increase the resistance to wear. While such a top coating is prone to cracking, it seldom increases strength and is difficult to apply without causing loose or weak parts. Concrete floors can normally be cast to finished level directly and be given a sufficiently smooth and hard surface without a top coating.

For coating, a mix of 1 part cement and 2 to 4 parts sand is used. The coating is placed in a 1 to 2cm thick layer with a steel trowel. Before application, the surface of the under laying concrete slab should be cleaned and moistened.

Plastering and Rendering

The term plastering is usually applied to interior walls and ceilings to give jointless, hygenic and usually smooth surfaces often over uneven backgrounds. Exterior plastering is usually called exterior rendering.

Cement plaster can be used on most types of walls, except it does not adhere well to soil-block walls as the shrinking and swelling tend to crack the plaster. The mixing ratio is 1 part cement and 5 parts sand, and if the plaster is too harsh, 0.5 to 1 part of lime can be added. The wall is first moistened and then the plaster is applied in two coats of about 5mm each, allowing at least 24 hours between layers. Cement plaster should not be applied on a wall while exposed to the sun.

Dagga plaster is a mixture of clay soil, such as red or brown laterite, stabilizer and water. The plaster is improved by adding lime or cement as a stabilizer and bitumen for waterproofing. A good mixture is 1 part lime or cement, 3 parts clay, 6 parts sand, 0.2 part bitumen and water. Dagga plaster is applied on previously moistened earth or adobe brick walls with a thickness of 10 to 25mm.

Ferrocement

Ferrocement is a highly versatile form of reinforced concrete made with closely spaced light reinforcing rods or wire mesh and a cement and sand mortar. It can be worked with relatively unskilled labour.

The function of the wire mesh and reinforcing rods is first to act as a lath providing the form to support the mortar in its plastic state, while in the hardened state, they absorb the tensile stresses in the structure which the mortar alone is not able to withstand.

The reinforcing can be assembled in any desired shape and the mortar applied in layers to both sides. Simple shapes such as water tanks can be assembled with wooden sticks as support for the reinforcing while the first coat of mortar is applied.

The mortar should have a mixing ratio of 1:2 to 1:4 cement- sand by volume, using the richer mix for the thinnest structures. The water-cement ratio should be below 0.5/1.0. Lime can be added in the proportion 1 part lime to 5 parts cement in order to improve workability.

The mechanical behavior of ferrocement is dependent upon the type, quantity, orientation and strength of the mesh and reinforcing rods. Of the several types of mesh being used, the most common are illustrated in Figure 3.33.

Standard galvanized mesh (galvanized after weaving) is adequate. Non-galvanized wire has adequate strength but the problem of rusting in limits its use.

A construction similar to ferrocement has recently been developed for small watertanks, sheds, huts, etc. It consists of welded 150mm square reinforcement mesh (6mm rods) covered with hessian and plastered in the same way as ferrocement.

Fibre - reinforced concrete

Fibre - reinforced concrete members can be made thinner than those with conventional reinforcement because the corrosion - protective cover over the steel bars is not necessary. The fibres improve flexible strength and resistance to cracking.

Figure 3.33 Reinforcement mesh for ferrocemens.

Commonly used fibres are asbestos, steel (0.25mm diameter), sisal? elephant grass, etc.

Asbestos Cement (A-C)

Asbestos, a silicate of magnesium, occurrs as a rock which can be split into extremely thin fibres from 2 to 900mm long. These have good resistance to alkalis, neutral salts and organic solvents, and the varieties used for building products have good resistance to acids. Asbestos is noncombustible and able to withstand high temperatures without change.

Inhalation of dust causes asbestosis (a disease of the lungs) and asbestos is now used only where no alternative fibre is available. Workers must wear masks and use great care not to inhale any asbestos dust!

The fibres being strong in tension and flexible, are used as reinforcement with Portland cement, lime and bitumen binders, in asbestos-cement and asbestos-silica- lime products, vinyl floor tiles and in bitumen felts. Asbestoscement is used in farm structures for corrugated roofing sheets, ridges and sanitary pipes.

Sisal-Fibre-Reinforced Cement (SFRC)

Sisal and other vegetable fibres have only recently come into use for reinforcement of concrete.

Sisal fibre can be used as short, discontinuous timbres ( 15 to 75mm in length) or as continuous long fibres over 75mm in length. Sometimes both short and long fibres are used together. The manner in which the fibres are incorporated into the matrix affects the properties of the composite both in the fresh state as well as in the hardened state.

Sisal fibres may deteriorate if not treated. Although the alkalinity of the concrete helps to protect the fibres from outside attack, it may itself attack the fibres chemically by decomposing the lignin.

Sisal-fibre reinforcing is used with various cement-sand mixing ratios, depending on the use:

wall plastering	1:3
guttering	1:2
roofing tiles	1:1
corrugated roofing sheets	1:0.5

The sand should be passed through a sieve with 1.5mm to 2mm holes (e.g., mosquito netting). The mixing water must be pure and the mix kept as dry as possible while still being workable.

Between 16g and 17g of short (25mm) dry sisal fibres are added to the mix for each kilogramme of cement. The short fibres are mixed into the dry cement and sand before adding water. Sisal fibres have a high water absorption, and some extra water may have to be added to the mix to compensate for this.

When mixing there is a tendency for the fibres to ball and separate out from the rest of the mix. This tendency will increase with longer fibres, but if fibres shorter than 25mm are used the reinforcing effect will be reduced. In most cases, the mix is then trowelled on to a mesh of fulllength sisal fibres.

Making Corrugated Reinforced Roofing Sheets

Homemade reinforced corrugated roofing is usually cast to standard width, but only one metre long because of its additional weight. Commercial asbestos-cement roofing is heavier than corrugate steel and the home made sheets are still heavier. Thus special attention must be given to rafter or truss sizes to ensure a safe structure.

The casting procedure for SFRC is involved, but once the proper equipment has been assembled and several sheets have been made the process becomes much easier.

A concrete block cast over a 1m length of asbestoscement roofing is needed as a face for the casting of the roof sheets. The block is cast within a form, 100mm high, which will give a block of sufficient strength after a few days curing. Two or more 1m lengths of A-C roofing will be needed as well as a piece of 18mm plywood 1.2m by 1.2m and a sheet of heavy duty polythene 2.25m long and 1m wide. The polythene is folded in the middle and a thin batten 9mm by 15mm is stapled fast at the fold. Strips of 9mm plywood or wood are nailed along two edges of the plywood sheet leaving exactly 1 m between them as shown in Figure 3.34.

Following are the steps in the casting procedure:

• 1 Fit an asbestos cement sheet on to the moulding block and cover with the piece of plywood with the edge strips at the ends of the sheet. The polythene is placed over the plywood and the top sheet folded back off the plywood.
• 2 Prepare a mix of 9 kg cement, 4.5 kg sand, 150g short sisal fibres (25mm) and 4.5 litres of water. Also prepare four 60g bundles of sisal fibres, as long as possible.
• 3 Use one-third of the mortar mix to trowel a thin even layer over the polythene. Take two of the four sisal bundles and distribute the fibres evenly, the second bundle at right angles to the first, forming a mat of fibres. This is covered with mortar and another mat, using the remaining two bundles. Finally all the sisal is covered with the remaining mortar, and the surface screeded even with the edge strips on the plywood.
• 4 Cover with the top sheet of polythene, ensuring that the mortar is of even thickness all over and that no air bubbles remain under the polythene.
• 5 While holding the batten strip at the fold in the polythene, carefully remove the plywood sheet to allow the new sisal-cement sheet to fall onto the asbestoscement sheet. At the same time press the new sheet into the corrugations using a PVC drain pipe of 90mm diameter. Compact the new sheet by placing another asbestos sheet on top and treading on it. Holes for mounting are punched with a 5mm dowel 25mm from the end in the gulleys (crests when mounted on the roof) of the fresh sheet.
• 6 Remove the asbestos sheet bearing the sisal-cement sheet from the moulding block and leave it until the cement in the new sheet has set, preferably two days. Then carefully remove the new sheet, peel off the polythene and cure the new sheet for at least one week, preferably immersed in a water tank.
• 7 If more polythene and asbestos-cement sheets are available, casting can proceed immediately.

Figure 3.34 Plywood casting board and polythene "envelope"

Walls Using Sisal-Cement Plastering Technique

Soil blocks can be used for inexpensive walls with good thermal insulation. However, they are easily damaged by impact and eroded by rain. One way of solving these problems is to plaster the face of the wall. Ordinarily mortar plaster tends to crack and peel off as it does not expand at the same rate as the soil. This can be overcome by letting long sisal fibres pass through the wall to be incorporated into the mortar on each face. The double skin so formed provides sufficient strength and waterproofing to the wall to enable soil blocks to be laid without joining mortar between the blocks.

Metals

Several ferrous metals (those containing iron) are useful in farm building construction. Cast iron is used for making sanitary waste pipe and fittings. Steel consists of iron plus a small percentage of carbon in chemical combination. High-carbon or hard steel is used for tools with cutting edges. Medium-carbon steel is used for structural members such as "I" beams, reinforcing bars and implement frames. Low-carbon or mild steel is used for pipe, nails, screws, wire, screening, fencing and corrugated roof sheets.

Non-ferrous metals such as aluminium and copper are corrosion resistant and are often chosen on that account. Copper is used for electric wire, tubing for water supply and for flashing. Aluminium is most commonly used for corrugated roofing sheets, gutters and the accompanying nails. Using nails of the same material avoids the problem of corrosion due to electrolytic action. Brass is a corrosion resistant alloy of copper and zinc which is used extensively for building hardware.

Figure 3.35 Sisal-cement plastering technique.

Corrosion

Air and moisture accelerate corrosion in ferrous materials unless they are protected. Acids tend to corrode copper while alkalies such as found in animal waste, Portland cement and lime, as well as some soils, will cause rapid corrosion of aluminium and zinc. Electrolytic action caused by slight voltages set up when dissimilar metals are in contact with each other in the presence of water also encourages corrosion in some metals. Aluminium is particularly subject to electrolytic corrosion.

Corrosion can be reduced by carefully selecting metal products for the application; reducing the time that the metal will be wet by preventing condensation and promoting good drainage, avoiding contact between dissimilar metals, and by using corrosion-inhibiting coatings.

Corrosion Inhibiting Coatings

Copper, aluminium, stainless steels and cast iron tend to form oxide coatings that provide a considerable amount of self-protection from corrosion. However, most other steels require protective coatings if they are exposed to moisture and air. Methods used include zinc coating (galvanizing), vitreous-enamel glazing and painting. Painting is the only method practical for field application, although grease and oil will provide temporary protection.

Before painting, the metal surface must be clean, dry and free of oil. Both bituminous and oil-based paints with metallic-oxide pigments offer good protection if they are carefully applied in continuous layers. Two to three coats offer the best protection.

Building hardware

Nails

A nail relies on the grip around its shank and the shear strength of its cross-section to give strength to a joint. It is important to select the right type and size of nail for any particular situation. Nails are specified by their type, length and gauge (the higher the gauge number - the smaller the shank diameter). See Table 3.18. Most nails are made from mild steel wire. In a corrosive environment galvanized, copper-plated, copper or aluminium nails are used. A large number of types and sizes of nails are available on the market. The nails most commonly used in farm building are:

Round plain-headed nails or round wire nails are used for general carpentry work. As they have a tendency to split thin members, the following rule is often used: the diameter of the nail should not exceed 1/7 of the thickness of the timber.

Table 3.18 Dimensions and Approximate Number per Kilo of Commonly Used Sizes of Round Wire Nails

Length		Diameter	Approx.
Inches	mm	mm	no/ kg
6	1 50	6.0	29
5	125	5.6	42
4	100	4.5	77
3	75	3.75	154
2.5	65	3.35	230
2	50	2.65	440
1.5	40	2.0	970
1	25	1.8	1 720

Lost-head nails have a smaller head which can be set below the surface of the wood. Their holding power is lower because the head can more easily be pulled through the wood.

Panel pins are fine wire nails with small heads used for fixing plywood and hardboard panels.

Clout or slate nails have large heads and are used for fixing tiles, slates and soft board. Felt nails have even larger heads.

Concrete nails are made from harder steel, which allows them to be driven into concrete or masonry work.

Staples are U-shaped nails with two points and are used mainly to fasten wires.

Roofing nails have a square twisted shank and a washer attached to the head. Roofing felt or rubber may be used under the washer to prevent leakage. The nail and the washer should be galvanized to prevent corrosion. They are used for fixing corrugated sheet materials and must be long enough to go at least 20mm into the wood. Alternatively wire nails with used bottle caps for washers can be used.

Figure 3.36 Types of nails.

Screws and Bolts

Wood screws have a thread which gives them greater holding power and resistance to withdrawal than nails and they can be easily removed without damage to the wood. For a screw to function properly it must be inserted by rotation and not by being driven with a hammer. It is usually necessary to drill a pilot hole for the shank of the screw. Screws made of mild steel are normally preferred because they are stronger. A wide range of finishes, such as galvanized, painted and plated, are available.

Screws are classified according to the shape of their head as countersunk, raised, round or recessed (not slotted across the full width). Coach screws have a square head and are turned with a spanner. They are used for heavy construction work and should have a metal washer under the head to prevent damage to the wood surface. Screws are sold in boxes containing a gross (144 screws) and are specified by their material, finish, type, length and gauge. Unlike the wire gauge used for nails, the larger the screw gauge number, the greater the diameter of the shank.

Bolts provide still stronger joints than either nails or screws. As the joint is secured by tightening the nut onto the bolt, the load in most cases becomes entirely a shear force. Bolts are used for heavy loads such as at the joints in a gantry hoist frame, the corners of a ring beam installed for earthquake protection or to secure the hinges for heavy doors. Most bolts used with wood have a rounded head and a square shank just under the head. Only one spanner is required for these 'coach' bolts. Square head bolts, requiring two spanners, are also available. Washers help to prevent the nuts from sinking into the wood.

Figure 3.37 Types of wood screws and bolts.

Hinges

Hinges are classified by their function, length of nap and the material from which they are made and come in many different types and sizes. Hinges for farm buildings are mainly manufactured of mild steel and provided with a corrosion-inhibiting coating. The most common types are:

Steel butt hinge is commonly used for windows, shutters and small doors, since it is cheap and durable. If the pin can be removed from the outside it is not burglarproof. The flaps are usually set in recesses in the door or window and frame.

The H-hinge is similar to the butt hinge but is usually surface mounted.

The T-hinge is mostly used for hanging match-boarded doors. For security reasons the strap of the T-hinge should be fixed to the door with at least one coach bolt, which can not be easily unscrewed from the outside.

The band-and-hook hinge is a stronger type of Thinge and is used for heavy doors and gates. This type is suitable for fabrication at the site or by the local blacksmith.

Figure 3.38 Types of hinges.

Table 3.19 Conversion of Screw Gauge to Millimetres

Locks and Latches

Any device used to keep a door in the closed position can be classified as a lock or latch. A lock is activated by means of a key whereas a latch is operated by a lever or bar. Locks can be obtained with a latch bolt so that the door can be kept in a closed position without using the key. Locks in doors are usually fixed at a height of 1050mm. Some examples of common locks and latches used in farm buildings are illustrated in Figure 3.39.

Figure 3.39 Types of locks and latches.

Glass

Glass suitable for general window glazing is made mainly from soda, lime and silica. The ingredients are heated in a furnace to about 1500° C and fuse together in the molten state. Sheets are then formed by a process of drawing, floating or rolling. The ordinary glazing quality is manufactured by drawing in thicknesses ranging from 2 to 6mm. It is transparent with 90% light transmission. Because the two surfaces are never perfectly flat or parallel there is always some visual distortion. Plate glass is manufactured with ground and polished surfaces and should be free of imperfections.

Glass in buildings is required to resist loads including wind loads, impact by persons and animals and sometimes thermal and other stresses. Generally the thickness must increase with the area of glass pane. Glass is elastic right up to its breaking point, but is also completely brittle so there is no permanent set or warning of impending failure. The support provided for glass will affect its strength performance. Glass should be cut to give a minimum clearance of 2mm all around the frame to allow for thermal movements.

Plastics

Plastics are among the newest building materials, ranging from material strong enough to replace metal to foam-like products. Plastics are considered to be mainly organic materials derived from petroleum and, to a small extent coal, which at some stage in processing are plastic when heated.

The range of properties is so great that generalizations are difficult to make. However, plastics are usually light in weight and have a good strength to weight ratio, but rigidity is lower than that of virtually all other building materials, and creep is high.

Plastics have low thermal conductivity and thermal capacity, but thermal movement is high. They resist a wide range of chemicals and do not corrode, but they tend to become brittle with age.

Most plastics are combustible and may release poisonous gases in a fire. Some are highly flammable, while others are difficult to burn.

Plastics lend themselves to a wide range of manufacturing techniques, and products are available in many formssolid and cellular, from soft and flexible to rigid, from transparent to opaque. Various textures and colours (many of which fade if used out-of-doors) are available. Plastics are classified as:

Thermoplastics which always soften when heated and harden again on cooling, provided they are not overheated.

Thermosetting plastics which undergo an irreversible chemical change in which the molecular chains crosslink so they cannot subsequently be appreciably softened by heat. Excessive heating causes charring.

Thermoplastics

Polythene is tough, water- and oilproof and can be manufactured in many colours. In buildings it is used for cold water pipes, plumbing and sanitary ware and polythene film (translucent or black). Film should not be unnecessarily subjected to prolonged heat over 50°C or to direct sunlight. The translucent film will last only one to two years exposed to sunlight, but the carbon pigmentation of the black film increases resistance to sunlight.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) will not burn and can be made in rigid or flexible form. It is used for rainwater goods, drains, pipes, ducts, electric cable insulation, etc.

Acrylics, a group of plastics containing, polymethyl methacrylate, transmit more light than glass, and can be easily moulded or curved to almost any shape.

Thermosetting Plastics

The main use of thermosetting plastics in buildings is as impregnants for paper fabrics, binders for particle boards, adhesives paints and clear finishes . Phenol formaldehyde (bakelite) is used for electrical insulating accessories. Urea formaldehyde is used for particle board manufacture.

Epoxide resins are, for most uses, provided in two parts, a resin and a curing agent. They are extremely tough and stable and adhere well to most materials. Silicone resins are water repellent and used for waterproofing in masonry. Note that fluid plastics can be very toxic.

Rubber

Rubbers are similar to thermosetting plastics. In the manufacturing process a number of substances are mixed with latex, a natural polymer. Carbon black is added to increase strength in tension and to improve wearing properties.

After forming, the product is vulcanised by heating under pressure, usually with sulphur present. In this process the strength and elasticity is increased. Ebonite is a fully vulcanised, hard rubber.

Modified and synthetic rubbers (elastomers) are increasingly being used for building products. For example unlike natural rubbers they often have good resistance to oil and solvents. One of them, butyl is extremely tough, has good weather resistance, excellent resistance to acids and a very low permeability to air. Synthetic rubber fillers and nail washers are used with metal roofing.

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